The most basic unit of music is the Swara (or note),  which simply indicates the position in the audible spectrum occupied by a particular sound or the pitch of the sound. Actually, the spectral position is better described as swarasthana. Inherently, certain sounds 'go together' and certain others do not. This property was realised by man thousands of years ago and is indicated by the term harmony.  Before going any further, let me introduce, as a practical tool, a keyboard, that will help us immensely as we go along deeper into the fundamentals of Carnatic music. Purists may frown at this, but as long as we realise the limitations of the keyboard and why the purists frown, we are committing no sin.

There are seven Swaras in Carnatic Music, namely, Shadjam (Sa), Rishabam (Ri), Gandharam (Ga), Madhyamam (Ma), Panchamam (Pa), Dhaivatham (Da) and Nishadam (Ni). There is some theoretical basis for why there is an odd number (seven) of swaras and we will deal with this subsequently. For simplicity, let us fix the Sa at one kattai and place the remaining swaras at the successive white keys. This provides us with a scale or a raga (in this case, containing all the seven swaras). As mentioned previously, ancient Vedic chants have but three swaras and somewhat later forms of music (Indian as well as other forms, e.g. Chinese) use five swaras - e.g. the Sa, Ri, Ga, Pa and Da of the scale we just created. Our present system is based on seven swaras, and perhaps, a few thousand years from now, the human race will advance to a point of discriminating scales of more swaras. The seven swaras are mythalogically associated with the sounds produced by certain animals and the names of the swaras are related to the names of these animals. The name Madhyamam appears to be related to the central or madhya location in the seven notes and Panchamam is most probably derived from the number five, denoting the position of the note.

Carnatic music is based not on logarithmic division but on rational division. An octave is based on the ratio 1:2; Pa is located through the ratio 2:3; similar definitions exist for all the twelve swarasthanas. A few centuries ago, Western classical music too was based on rational division (the resulting scale was called as the natural scale), but this has given way to the equally tempered (also called chromatic) scale produced by logarithmic division. The difference is subtle, but quite important. The rational division claim is supported by the fact that tuning of instruments (for example, in setting the frets of the veena) is performed mostly by the ear and not by reference to standards. Further, the swarasthanas of Carnatic music define only nominal locations for the swaras. Depending on the raga in which the swara is used, it manifests a deviation from the nominal sthana. Actually, the deviation from the nominal sthana depends on the swara phrase in which the swara occurs; thus, a single swara in a given raga can appear at different deviations from its nominal sthana when occurring along with various other swaras of the same raga. In a general sense, this deviation is called gamaka. Gamaka can refer to a constant deviation from the nominal swarasthana or a time dependent deviation or the path taken in reaching the nominal swara etc. Truly, gamaka is the life blood of Carnatic music and the raga system. Ragas are defined more by the gamakas and the way in which certain swara phrases (chain of swaras) are used than by the mere presence or absence of certain swaras. Thus, playing the keys corresponding to the swara sthanas of a certain raga will not reproduce the true character of the raga but only provide a general idea of what it sounds like. This is the reason why purists object to the use of keyboard instruments in Carnatic music - the lack of gamaka, which leads to a mutilation of the raga swaroopa. The use of gamaka also implies that the method used for defining nominal swara sthanas (rational or logarithmic division) is not too critical as long the correct raga swaroopam can be accommodated.

 Ragas

Ragas are sometimes defined as melody types. The raga system is a method of organising tunes based on certain natural principles. Tunes in the same raga use the same (nominal) swaras in various combinations and with practice, the listener can pick up the similarity. Each raga has a swaroopam (a musical form or image) that is defined by the swaras used, the gamakas given to these swaras, the sequence in which the swaras occur etc. This definition is termed as the raga lakshanam. (The magazine Sruthi usually contains a discussion of raga lakshanam of one or two ragas in each issue). Raga lakshanam usually contains the arohanam, avarohanam, details of raga chaya swaras (the swaras which are chiefly responsible for the characteristic melody of the raga), gamakas, characteristic swara phrases and general usage notes. It is intended more for the performer than for the listener. We shall first define arohanam and avarohanam. Arohanam is the sequence of swaras used in a raga in the ascending passages i.e. as the pitch goes up. Avarohanam is the sequence of swaras to be used in descent. The arohanam and avarohanam (or the scale) of a raga provide only a skeletal outline upon which the rest of the raga is formed.

Ragas are not simply abstract collections of swaras that occur together to produce a tune. Each raga has a distinct image or swaroopam and it is this which defines a raga. Arbitrary selection of a set of swaras is unlikely to produce a distinct raga swaroopam and this is the reason for attributing the foundations of the raga system to nature. The ragas that we know of are the products of centuries of experimentation. Each ragam has associated with it a feeling that it induces in the listener and the performer. Hours of dedicated practice with a single raga (Saathakam) results in the realisation of the raga swaroopa on the part of the performer and this is often referred to as obtaining a Dharshan of that particular raga. The unfortunate consequence of this is that various performers have slightly different mental concepts of a single raga and this is manifest in their music. But the good part is that it adds a tremendous variety to the music. This is also the reason why Carnatic music (performance) can never really be learnt from a book but needs a Guru who can portray the raga swaroopam in such a manner that the pupil can pick it up. From the viewpoint of the listener, a realisation of the raga swaroopam means that some of the qualities of the music can be anticipated and this contributes greatly to listening pleasure.

Ragas fall into two types, the base or melakarta ragas and the derived or janya ragas. Melakarta ragas have a formal structure and follow a fairly rigid scheme of scientific organisation whereas the janya ragas are rooted in usage and are liable to evolve with the music. In fact many janya ragas change their character over time. Janya ragas are derived from the melakarta ragas through various means as described subsequently. Melakarta ragas are identified by the fact that they use all seven swaras and the arohanam and avarohanam are always Sa-Ri-Ga-Ma-Pa-Da-Ni-Sa and Sa-Ni-Da-Pa-Ma-Ga-Ri-Sa. This type of arohanam and avarohanam is denoted by the term sampoornam, indicating completeness. The existence of multiple swara sthanas for Ri, Ga, Ma, Da and Ni implies that by collecting combinations of these, we can form a system of melakartas. This concept will be developed in the succeeding section. Any raga that does not belong to the melakarta system is a janya raga. Janya ragas are characterized by missing notes in the arohanam and/or avarohanam (e.g. Sa-Ri-Ga-Pa-Da-Sa), the use of twisted progressions (e.g. Sa-Ga-Ri-Ma-Pa-Da-Ni-Sa) etc. Janya ragas and their classifications will be described subsequently.

The definition of melakarta given above is a currently accepted one. In the past, melakartas have been defined in other ways, sometimes incompatible with the sampoornam characteristic. The present system is mathematically much more elegant and that appears to be one of the reasons for its wide spread acceptance and use in the past few centuries.

Taalam

We have seen that the term raga refers to the tune or melody characteristics. The analogous term referring to the rhythm or beats of Carnatic music is taalam. It indicates the pacing of the music and the placement of syllables in the composition. It is vital to realize that the taalam system is essentially based on a cyclic pattern; in other words, the rhythm is always cyclic. In Carnatic music, the singer indicates the taalam using gestures. There are three basic hand movements used in keeping the rhythm - the downward beat with the palm facing down, called thattu, the wave (sometimes the downward beat with the palm facing up) called veechu and counts using one finger for each count staring with the little finger (sometimes using the thumb to indicate a finger or portions of a finger). These basic movements are combined into three groups, called Laghu, Dhrutham and Anudhrutham. A Laghu is one thattu followed by a specified number of counts to make up the requisite number of beats. A Dhrutham is one thattu followed by one veechu while an Anudhrutham is just one thattu. Each beat or unit of taalam is termed as an aksharam and thus, an Anudhrutham is one aksharam long, a Dhrutham is two aksharams long and the Laghu is of variable length. There are several other movements but these are rarely seen in practice.

The absolute duration of an aksharam is not fixed and it varies, depending on the composition and the mood of the performer. This is similar to the way in which the absolute pitch of the swaras is not fixed but defined only relative to the reference pitch or sruthi. The aksharam is further divided into a number of swaras and this division is referred to as gathi or nadai. Four swaras per aksharam is standard and is termed Chaturasra nadai. The other standard divisions and the associated number of swaras per aksharam are Tisra (three), Khanda (five), Misra (seven) and Sankirna (nine). These divisions apply to medium tempo or Madhyama Kaalam. The divisions can be doubled to yield a fast tempo termed Dhuritha Kaalam or halved to yield the slow Chowka Kaalam. Further doubling and halving are also possible but rarely heard. Most of Dikshithar's compositions have the last line of Anupallavi and Charanam (see Elements of Recital section for definitions) set to Dhuritha Kaalam.

There are seven common taalams employing a mixture of the movements just described. In standard notation, the Laghu is indicated by a |, the Dhrutham by a 0 and the anudhrutham by a U. The length of the Laghu is indicated by a subscript placed after the |. For example, |4 indicates a Laghu of length 4, which comprises of a thattu followed by a three count on the fingers for a total of four aksharams. The seven common taalams and their components are as follows:

The length of the Laghu has not been specified in the classification. There are five possible Laghu lengths called Tisra (length 3 aksharams), Chaturasra (4 aksharams), Khanda (5), Misra (7) and Sankirna (9). Each of these five Laghus can occur in the seven basic taalams to produce a total of thirty-five taalams. For example, Misra Jhampa taalam (|7 U 0) has a Laghu of 7 aksharams, an Anudhrutham and a Dhrutham. This would be indicated by a thattu (counted one) followed by a six count on the fingers (counts two through seven), two thattus and a veechu, for a total of ten aksharams. Each of these thirty-five taalams can be divided into the five nadais to yield 175 beat patterns. Sometimes, the taalam names are used without indicating the length of the Laghu and are to be interpreted as follows: Eka (Chaturasra Eka), Roopaka (Chaturasra Roopaka), Triputa (Tisra Triputa), Jhampa (Misra Jhampa), Ata (Khanda Ata). Chaturasra Roopakam is usually indicated by two thattus and a veechu (each of two akshara length) in order to economize hand motion.

In addition to the taalams just described, there are three more common taalams - Aadi, Khanda Chaapu and Misra Chaapu. Aadi taalam is just the name given to the most common taalam - Chaturasra Triputa or |4 0 0. Khanda Chaapu is a five beat taalam also called arai Jhampa (or half Jhampa) and is usually indicated 0 U 0, though there is really no fixed way of indicating it. One can also see a thattu of two aksharams followed by two veechus of one and two aksharam durations. Khanda Chaapu is often used as a version of Misra Jhampa. Misra Chaapu is similar to Tisra Triputa and is sometimes used as an alternative. The usual indication consists of a thattu of three aksharams followed by two veechus or two thattus of two aksharams each, for a total of seven aksharams (and hence the name).

There is another aspect of taalam , which merits attention - the starting point of the song in relation to the taalam or the eduppu as it is called. Many songs start simultaneously with the beat and this is termed as sama eduppu indicating that the start is level with the taalam. Often, the song starts after the taalam is started, leaving an empty rhythm pattern at the beginning. This gap allows the singer greater freedom in improvisation (see also under the section titled Elements of a Recital). This is indicated by the term anaagatha eduppu. Sometimes, the song starts before the beat and this is termed atheetha eduppu. This construction is often used to add  one or two syllable prefixes (e.g. Hari, Sri, Amba) to the text of the melodic line. A peculiar eduppu is associated with a taalam called Desadi taalam. Though this taalam actually consists of four movements, each of two aksharam duration, it is customary to keep pace for this taalam using simple Aadi taalam. Then, the eduppu is at one and half aksharams from the start of the taalam or three eighths way into the laghu. An example for Desadi eduppu is the song 'Bantu reethi kolu viya vayya Raama' in the ragam Hamsanaadham.